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Robert R. Bowie was a foreign policy expert and legal scholar who served four U.S. administrations as policy planner, counselor, and deputy CIA director, while teaching at Harvard Law School and founding Harvard's Center for International Affairs. Throughout Bowie's wide-ranging career, he sustained interests in antitrust issues, European unity, and global arms control.

Robert Richardson Bowie was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1909. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1931, and was graduated from Harvard Law School in 1934. He practiced law in Baltimore, Maryland between 1934 and 1942 with the firm Bowie and Burke (together with his father Clarence K. Bowie), and was Maryland's Assistant Attorney General from 1941 to 1942. He entered the U.S. Army in 1942.

Bowie's wartime work centered on the renegotiation and termination of war contracts. His Legion of Merit award cites Bowie's contribution to "an agreement under which the War Department was allowed great flexibility in procedure while retaining the benefits of price control."

As World War II ended, Bowie was relocated to occupied Berlin as Special Assistant to General Lucius Clay, the Deputy Military Governor of Germany. Bowie formulated policy for the military government in Germany, serving as executive secretary of the Denazification Policy Board. The Oak Leaf Cluster was added to his Legion of Merit award for services in Germany between 1945 and 1946.

Bowie joined the faculty of the Harvard Law School upon his return to the United States, and taught courses in corporate and antitrust law between 1946 and 1955. In 1949, Bowie served on the Hoover Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, studying federal regulatory agencies including the Federal Reserve Board, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission.

Bowie went on leave from Harvard 1950-1951, returning to Germany to act as General Counsel and Special Adviser to John J. McCloy, then the U.S. High Commissioner of Germany. Bowie helped to draft McCloy's speeches, and himself gave a talk in Hamburg entitled "Economic Bases of a Democratic State." With McCloy, Bowie worked on crafting the agreement between the Allies and West Germany and making the transition from military to civilian government.

During this period, Bowie met Jean Monnet, who was to remain a friend and associate. McCloy and Bowie were among the advocates for the 1950 Schuman Plan (a focal effort of Monnet's), through which West Germany was integrated into the common market of the European Coal and Steel Community along with France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in 1952—a precursor to the European Union.

European unity, and Germany's position in Europe, remained a concern of Bowie's as the Cold War developed. In 1953, Bowie left Harvard once more to become the State Department's third Director of Policy Planning. In 1955 he was also named Assistant Secretary of State. During this time, Bowie worked with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and sat on the National Security Council's planning board, a new body appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Bowie's experience working with Dulles and Eisenhower led to his later participation in recording oral histories about the period, and provided a basis for his authorship with Richard Immerman of Waging Peace: Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. In his reflections and in his writing, he made a case for Eisenhower as a policymaker in his own right.

Returning to Harvard in 1957, Bowie founded the Center for International Affairs (CFIA; now the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs), and was named Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs. With Henry Kissinger, Bowie wrote in 1958 in The Program of the Center for International Affairs: "Foreign affairs in our era pose unprecedented tasks.…Today no region is isolated; none can be ignored; actions and events even in remote places may have immediate worldwide impact…the old order has been shattered." Bowie served as the center's director from its founding until 1972.

In 1966, Bowie served again in Washington as Counselor to Secretary of State Dean Rusk. He returned to Harvard in 1968. He stepped down as director of the CFIA in 1972. During the mid-1970s he was a member of the Trilateral Commission (formed to create ties between industrialized Japan, Europe and North America) and the Overseas Development Council, among other activities.

In 1977, Bowie was appointed Deputy for National Intelligence under Director of the CIA, Admiral Stansfield Turner, and was responsible for regular briefings to President Carter. He left the CIA in 1979, and retired from Harvard in 1980.

During the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie remained active and engaged in the field of foreign policy. He published a monthly column in the Christian Science Monitor in the early 1980s, and chaired a task force of the Committee for Economic Development in 1982. Bowie was a member of the European Security Study (ESECS), a group of independent defense analysts who advocated bolstering NATO's conventional weaponry as an alternative to nuclear stockpiling. He was involved with the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Academy of Diplomacy, the Nuclear History Program (a collaboration between France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Woodrow Wilson Center, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Brookings Institution, among other organizations.

Bowie was the author of Studies in Federalism with Carl J. Friedrich in 1954; Shaping the Future: Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition in 1963 [Radner Lectures at Columbia University]; Suez 1956 in 1974; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy with Richard Immerman in 1998.

Bowie and the former Mary Theodosia Chapman, known as Teddy, married in 1944 and had two children, Robert R. Bowie, Jr. and William C. Bowie.

Robert Bowie died at age 104 in Maryland in November, 2013.

Sources:

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/21/world/r-bowie-104-dies-advised-4-presidents.html

http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/11/professor-robert-r-bowie-dies-at-104/

Weatherhead Center: http://wcfia.harvard.edu/about

Robert R. Bowie was a foreign policy expert and legal scholar who served four U.S. administrations as policy planner, counselor, and deputy CIA director, while teaching at Harvard Law School and founding Harvard's Center for International Affairs. Throughout Bowie's wide-ranging career, he sustained interests in antitrust issues, European unity, and global arms control.

Robert Richardson Bowie was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1909. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1931, and was graduated from Harvard Law School in 1934. He practiced law in Baltimore, Maryland between 1934 and 1942 with the firm Bowie and Burke (together with his father Clarence K. Bowie), and was Maryland's Assistant Attorney General from 1941 to 1942. He entered the U.S. Army in 1942.

Bowie's wartime work centered on the renegotiation and termination of war contracts. His Legion of Merit award cites Bowie's contribution to "an agreement under which the War Department was allowed great flexibility in procedure while retaining the benefits of price control."

As World War II ended, Bowie was relocated to occupied Berlin as Special Assistant to General Lucius Clay, the Deputy Military Governor of Germany. Bowie formulated policy for the military government in Germany, serving as executive secretary of the Denazification Policy Board. The Oak Leaf Cluster was added to his Legion of Merit award for services in Germany between 1945 and 1946.

Bowie joined the faculty of the Harvard Law School upon his return to the United States, and taught courses in corporate and antitrust law between 1946 and 1955. In 1949, Bowie served on the Hoover Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, studying federal regulatory agencies including the Federal Reserve Board, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission.

Bowie went on leave from Harvard 1950-1951, returning to Germany to act as General Counsel and Special Adviser to John J. McCloy, then the U.S. High Commissioner of Germany. Bowie helped to draft McCloy's speeches, and himself gave a talk in Hamburg entitled "Economic Bases of a Democratic State." With McCloy, Bowie worked on crafting the agreement between the Allies and West Germany and making the transition from military to civilian government.

During this period, Bowie met Jean Monnet, who was to remain a friend and associate. McCloy and Bowie were among the advocates for the 1950 Schuman Plan (a focal effort of Monnet's), through which West Germany was integrated into the common market of the European Coal and Steel Community along with France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in 1952—a precursor to the European Union.

European unity, and Germany's position in Europe, remained a concern of Bowie's as the Cold War developed. In 1953, Bowie left Harvard once more to become the State Department's third Director of Policy Planning. In 1955 he was also named Assistant Secretary of State. During this time, Bowie worked with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and sat on the National Security Council's planning board, a new body appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Bowie's experience working with Dulles and Eisenhower led to his later participation in recording oral histories about the period, and provided a basis for his authorship with Richard Immerman of Waging Peace: Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. In his reflections and in his writing, he made a case for Eisenhower as a policymaker in his own right.

Returning to Harvard in 1957, Bowie founded the Center for International Affairs (CFIA; now the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs), and was named Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs. With Henry Kissinger, Bowie wrote in 1958 in The Program of the Center for International Affairs: "Foreign affairs in our era pose unprecedented tasks.…Today no region is isolated; none can be ignored; actions and events even in remote places may have immediate worldwide impact…the old order has been shattered." Bowie served as the center's director from its founding until 1972.

In 1966, Bowie served again in Washington as Counselor to Secretary of State Dean Rusk. He returned to Harvard in 1968. He stepped down as director of the CFIA in 1972. During the mid-1970s he was a member of the Trilateral Commission (formed to create ties between industrialized Japan, Europe and North America) and the Overseas Development Council, among other activities.

In 1977, Bowie was appointed Deputy for National Intelligence under Director of the CIA, Admiral Stansfield Turner, and was responsible for regular briefings to President Carter. He left the CIA in 1979, and retired from Harvard in 1980.

During the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie remained active and engaged in the field of foreign policy. He published a monthly column in the Christian Science Monitor in the early 1980s, and chaired a task force of the Committee for Economic Development in 1982. Bowie was a member of the European Security Study (ESECS), a group of independent defense analysts who advocated bolstering NATO's conventional weaponry as an alternative to nuclear stockpiling. He was involved with the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Academy of Diplomacy, the Nuclear History Program (a collaboration between France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Woodrow Wilson Center, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Brookings Institution, among other organizations.

Bowie was the author of Studies in Federalism with Carl J. Friedrich in 1954; Shaping the Future: Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition in 1963 [Radner Lectures at Columbia University]; Suez 1956 in 1974; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy with Richard Immerman in 1998.

Bowie and the former Mary Theodosia Chapman, known as Teddy, married in 1944 and had two children, Robert R. Bowie, Jr. and William C. Bowie.

Robert Bowie died at age 104 in Maryland in November, 2013.

Sources:

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/21/world/r-bowie-104-dies-advised-4-presidents.html

http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/11/professor-robert-r-bowie-dies-at-104/

Weatherhead Center: http://wcfia.harvard.edu/about

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George F. Kennan (1904-2005) was a diplomat and a historian, noted especially for his influence on United States policy towards the Soviet Union during the Cold War and for his scholarly expertise in the areas of Russian history and foreign policy. While with the Foreign Service, Kennan advocated a policy of "containment" that influenced United States relations with the Soviet Union throughout the Cold War and served in various positions in European embassies, as well as ambassador to the Soviet Union. His career as a historian was spent at the Institute for Advanced Study, where he continued to analyze the history of Russia, Soviet Union and United States foreign policies, and foreign affairs.

Kennan was educated at St. John's Northwestern Military Academy in Delafield, Wisconsin and earned his B.A. degree at Princeton University in 1925, where he studied history with an emphasis on modern European diplomacy. Following graduation, he entered the Foreign Service. His first post was as vice consul in Geneva, and in the next year he was transferred to Hamburg, Germany. In 1928, Kennan entered a training program though the Foreign Service, studying Russian language, history and culture at Berlin University. The United States did not yet have diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and so Kennan was assigned to "listening posts" around the U.S.S.R. in Tallinn, Estonia (1927) and in Riga, Latvia and Kaunas, Lithuania (1931-1933).

His first assignment in Moscow came in 1933 under William C. Bullitt, the first United States ambassador to the Soviet Union, aiding in the establishment of diplomatic relations between Washington and the Kremlin for the first time since 1917. He held positions as third secretary from 1933 to 1934, second secretary from 1935 to 1936, and from 1944 to 1946, minister-counselor (the second highest rank at the embassy), first under W. Averell Harriman and then under General Walter Bedell Smith. During this period, he was also appointed to positions in Vienna (1935), Prague (1938), Berlin (1939), Lisbon (1942), and London (1944). Kennan was detained in Berlin for five months after United States' entry into World War II.

Kennan rose to prominence in February 1946 when he wrote what became known as the "Long Telegram." Written in response to an inquiry from the U.S. Treasury regarding Moscow's refusal to support the World Bank and International Monetary Fund, the telegram outlined Kennan's assessment of the psychology of the leaders of the Soviet Union and provided principles on which the United States should base policies towards the Soviet Union. Kennan wrote that Stalin was "impervious to the logic of reason but highly sensitive to the logic of force," by which he meant primarily diplomatic and economic force more so than military. The telegram resonated in Washington, D.C.--although the interpretation of the Soviet threat became predominantly described as a military one--and Kennan became an influential figure in the State Department on Soviet affairs. Kennan further developed his views in "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" published under the pseudonym X in Foreign Affairs in July 1947. In this article, he used the term "containment" to describe his philosophy for dealing with the spread of Soviet power and influence. Again, this was interpreted by others in Washington as a military strategy, although Kennan intended it to be primarily achieved through diplomacy, economic sanctions, and covert action--anything short of war. Containment became one of the primary rationales for United States' Cold War policies, including the Marshall Plan, the founding of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in 1949, the commitment of American forces in Southeast Asia in 1965, and the Reagan administration arms buildup during the 1980s.

In April 1946, Kennan returned to Washington, D.C., where he taught at the National War College, and in 1947, he was appointed director of the Policy Planning Staff in the State Department. In this capacity, he was a principle architect of the Marshall Plan, which sent billions of dollars of aid to help rebuild Western Europe following World War II. When Dean Acheson became Secretary of State in 1949, Kennan remained in the State Department as one of his principal advisors. However, during this period Kennan became increasingly critical of United States policy, especially the military interpretation of containment and the entry of UN troops into North Korea, and so in 1950 Kennan took a leave of absence to devote himself to research and scholarship at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.

Kennan returned to the State Department in March 1952 when President Harry S. Truman appointed him Ambassador to the U.S.S.R. The assignment was short-lived, however. Kept under heavy surveillance by the Soviets, in October 1952 he compared conditions to those he suffered under his Nazi internment during World War II, and the Soviet government declared him persona non grata, which forced his return to the United States. Because of policy differences between Kennan and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles (who found containment too passive), Dulles employed a technicality to force Kennan's retirement from the State Department in 1953.

He returned to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he became a professor in the School of Historical Studies in 1956. Kennan became a prolific and respected diplomatic historian, studying modern European and Russian history, international relations, and American foreign policy and diplomacy. He also remained an important, often critical, voice in the ongoing debate about American foreign policy, advocating the use of diplomacy rather than military force and for foreign policy that was "very modest and restrained." Kennan was critical of the buildup of conventional and nuclear weapons during the arms race, which many argued for in the name of containment. He also advocated against military involvement in Vietnam, indicating that it was not an area of the world critical to American security. Later in his career, Kennan became a supporter of Russian and Soviet studies in the United States, identifying scholarship as a productive means to establish favorable relations with Moscow.

Over the course of his career, Kennan wrote numerous influential and critically acclaimed books, including American Diplomacy 1900-1950 (1951), Russia Leaves the War (1956), Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin (1961), two volumes of memoirs (1967, 1972), The Decline of Bismarck's European Order (1979), The Nuclear Delusion (1982), and Around the Cragged Hill (1993). He won two Pulitzer Prizes, one for Russia Leaves the War and the other for the first volume of his memoirs. Though he remained at the Institute for Advanced Study until his retirement in 1974, Kennan did return to government service briefly on two occasions, as ambassador to Yugoslavia from 1961 until 1963 for President John F. Kennedy and traveling to Switzerland in 1967 as a representative for the State Department to help convince Svetlana Alliluyeva, the daughter of Josef Stalin, to immigrate to the United States.

George Frost Kennan was born on February 16, 1904 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to Kossuth Kent Kennan, a lawyer, and Florence (James) Kennan. He met Annelise Sorensen of Norway while studying in Berlin and they married in 1931. The Kennans had four children: Grace Kennan Warnecke, Joan Kennan, Wendy Kennan, and Christopher J. Kennan. Through the course of his career, Kennan was the recipient of many honors for his work in the field of international affairs, including the Albert Einstein Peace Prize (1981), the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade (1982), the Gold Medal in History of the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters (1984), the FDR Freedom from Fear Award (1987), and the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1989, the highest civilian honor in the United States). George Kennan died on March 17, 2005 in Princeton, New Jersey at the age of 101.

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Hamilton Fish Armstrong was born, the youngest of seven children, April 7, 1893, in a house on West 10th Street. His parents, D. Maitland Armstrong (1836-1918) and Helen Neilson (1845-1927) named him for his great uncle, who was Grant's Secretary of State. His father was an artist, working especially with stained glass, and a one-time Consul General to Italy. Armstrong grew up in New York City and received his education at Gilman Country School in Baltimore, Maryland, and at Princeton University from which he received the A.B. in 1916.

Following his graduation Armstrong worked in the business department at The New Republic before entering the army in 1917. Commissioned a second lieutenant in October 1917, Armstrong advanced to first lieutenant and became Military Attache to the Serbian War Mission to the United States in December 1917. In November 1918, he received orders to Belgrade to become Assistant Military Attache to Serbia where in January 1919 he became Acting Military Attache.

Upon his military discharge in June 1919, Armstrong returned to New York to work on the editorial staff of the New York Evening Post, becoming the paper's special correspondent to Eastern Europe in 1921. His time in Serbia kindled in him a lifelong interest in foreign affairs, and in 1921 he became involved with the newly-formed Council on Foreign Relations, created to ensure that the United States' growing role in world affairs be informed and responsible. In 1922 Armstrong accepted a position as managing editor of the Council's magazine, Foreign Affairs, at the request of editor Archibald Cary Coolidge. Upon Coolidge's death in 1928, Armstrong became editor, a position he held until his retirement in 1972. Armstrong also served as the first Executive Director of the Council (1922-1928) and as a Council director from 1928 until 1972.

As editor, Armstrong travelled frequently, visiting with policymakers including King Alexander of Yugoslavia, Raymond Poincaré, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Neville Chamberlain. He was also well acquainted with many prominent Americans, such as Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Henry A. Kissinger. He belonged to many important committees and foundations: member of the President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees; three times delegate to the International Studies Conference (1929, 1933, 1935); trustee and twice president of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation; trustee and once president of the New York Society Library; and trustee of the New York International House.

Armstrong held many prominent positions during the Second World War. From 1942-44, he served on the United States State Department's Advisory Committee on Post-War Foreign Policies, which produced the original plans for the United Nations. In 1944, he became the special assistant to the United States ambassador in London with the personal rank of minister, before serving in 1944 and 1945 as special adviser to Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, working on the charter for the United Nations. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945, he was one of three senior advisers to the United States delegation.

Armstrong wrote prolifically, penning numerous magazine articles–forty-nine for Foreign Affairs alone–and thirteen books (he edited five others). His books include The New Balkans (1926), Where the East Begins (1929), Hitler's Reich: The First Phase (1933), Europe Between Wars? (1934), Can We Be Neutral? (1936) with Allen W. Dulles, "We or They:" Two Worlds in Conflict (1937), When There Is No Peace (1939), Can America Stay Neutral? (1939) with Allen W. Dulles, Chronology of Failure (1940), The Calculated Risk (1947), Tito and Goliath (1951), Those Days (1963), and Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (1971). He edited The Book of New York Verse (1918), Foreign Affairs Bibliography (1933) with William L. Langer, The Foreign Policy of the Powers (1935), The Foreign Affairs Reader (1947), and The Foreign Affairs Fifty-Year Reader (1972).

His activities received much recognition, both at home and abroad. His time in Serbia earned him the Order of the Serbian Red Cross (1918), the Order of St. Sava Fifth Class (1918), and the Chevalier of Order of the White Eagle with Swords (1919). He was awarded the Order of the Crown (Rumania) in 1924 and the Order of the White Lion of Czechoslovakia in 1937. In that year he was made an officer of the Legion of Honor of France and became a commander in 1947. He was appointed a Commander of the British Empire in 1972. He received honorary degrees from Brown (1942), Yale (1957), the University of Basel (1960), Princeton (1961), Columbia (1963), and Harvard (1963).

Armstrong married three times. Helen MacGregor Byrne became his wife in 1918, and they had one daughter, Helen MacGregor (later Mrs. Edwin Gamble) on September 3, 1923. Armstrong and Byrne divorced in 1938. Armstrong married Carman Barnes in 1945, a marriage which ended in a 1951 divorce. In that same year Armstrong married Christa von Tippelskirch. Armstrong retired from Foreign Affairs in 1972, the fiftieth year of its publication, and died after a long illness on April 24, 1973, at the age of 80.

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John Foster Dulles (1888-1959), the fifty-third Secretary of State of the United States for President Dwight D. Eisenhower, had a long and distinguished public career with significant impact upon the formulation of United States foreign policies. He was especially involved with efforts to establish world peace after World War I, the role of the United States in world governance, and Cold War relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Dulles was born on February 25, 1888 in Washington, D.C. to Allen Macy Dulles and Edith Foster. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1908. During this time, he had his first experience with foreign affairs, serving as secretary to his grandfather, John Watson Foster, during the Second Hague Peace Conference in 1907. After graduation, he studied philosophy and international law for a year at the Sorbonne in Paris, and then attended the George Washington University Law School, earning his LL.B. in 1911. Dulles married Janet Avery on June 26, 1912 and they had two sons, John Walsh and Avery, and one daughter, Lilias Pomeroy (Mrs. Robert Hinshaw).

After his graduation from law school, Dulles joined the prestigious New York law firm of Sullivan and Cromwell, which specialized in international law. He worked there from 1911 to 1949, rising to become a senior partner. During World War I, Dulles served as assistant to the chairman of the War Trade Board, and then as counsel to the reparations section of the American Commission to Negotiate Peace, and as a member of the American delegation to the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, serving as Bernard Baruch's chief legal advisor on the Reparations Commission and also serving on the Supreme Economic Council. After returning to Sullivan and Cromwell, he continued to be active in organizations concerned with world affairs, and to express his views on the United States' role in the world through speeches, articles, and the book War, Peace and Change published in 1939. In 1941 he accepted the chairmanship of the Commission to Study the Bases of a Just and Durable Peace, established by the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America. Dulles presented their "Six Pillars of Peace" plan to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1943, as a plan for establishing international cooperation for peace. Throughout his career, Dulles continued to be a prominent lay spokesman for the Protestant church.

Dulles became increasingly involved in politics at the onset of the Cold War. He represented the United States at the San Francisco organizational conference for the United Nations in 1945, and in many subsequent sessions of the United Nations General Assembly. He served as New York's junior senator from 1949 to 1950, replacing Senator Robert F. Wagner, who resigned due to ill health. Dulles then served as special representative of President Truman, with the rank of ambassador, negotiating the Japanese Peace Treaty of 1951 and the Australian, New Zealand, Philippine and Japanese Security Treaties of 1950-1951. During his negotiations, he observed the growing antagonism between the United States and Soviet Union which subsequently hardened his anti-Communist stance.

In 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed Dulles Secretary of State. His tenure was marked by a close working relationship with the President, staunch anti-Communism, and a philosophy of "collective security" which led to numerous mutual defense treaties. Recognizing that NATO would only provide for the defense of Western Europe, Dulles initiated the Manila Conference in 1954 that resulted in the formation of the Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO), an agreement between eight nations for the defense of Southeast Asia, and was influential in establishing the 1955 Baghdad Pact for the defense of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Pakistan. He was also known for enunciating a policy of "massive retaliation," whereby any attack on U.S. interests anywhere in the world by the Soviet Union or China would be met with an attack on those countries, including the possible use of nuclear weapons.

Several notable international events marked Dulles's tenure. In 1955, in an effort to induce President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt to support the West, Dulles offered to provide financing for the construction of the Aswan Dam on the Nile River to produce electrical power and for irrigation. However, Dulles withdrew the offer in July 1956 after receiving protests from United States cotton interests and Jewish-Americans, and after Nasser purchased weapons from Czechoslovakia, suggesting he was aligning with the Soviets. Nasser responded by nationalizing the British-owned Suez Canal. Without notifying the United States, Britain, France and Israel invaded Egypt in October 1956 but failed to capture the canal. Dulles condemned the action at the United Nations, and under economic pressure from the United States, the allies withdrew by early 1957.

Concurrent with the Suez crisis, an uprising in Hungary resulted in the establishment of a new government committed to withdrawing the country from the Warsaw Pact. The Soviets responded with military force, leading the Hungarians to appeal to the United Nations for aid, pleas that were ignored, allowing the Soviets to subsequently crush the revolt and maintain their grip on Eastern Europe.

In 1958, tensions between Communist China and Taiwan threatened to break out into war when Communist China renewed their shelling of the islands of Jinmen and Mazu and the United States avowed not to appease Mao Zedong. Dulles convinced Taiwan's Chiang Kai-shek to renounce the use of force against mainland China and to withdraw some troops from Jinmen and Mazu, and the Chinese ceased their shelling. Also in 1958, the Soviets threatened to sign a peace treaty with East Germany, terminating the joint occupation of Germany established after World War II, unless a satisfactory agreement was reached within six months. In what would be his last international trip as Secretary of State, Dulles traveled to Europe to reassure Chancellor Konrad Adenauer that the United States would maintain its commitment to West Germany. Eventually, the Soviets agreed to negotiate without a deadline.

Stricken with cancer, Dulles resigned as Secretary of State in April of 1959. He died on May 24, 1959 in Washington, D.C.

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Hamilton Fish Armstrong was born, the youngest of seven children, April 7, 1893, in a house on West 10th Street. His parents, D. Maitland Armstrong (1836-1918) and Helen Neilson (1845-1927) named him for his great uncle, who was Grant's Secretary of State. His father was an artist, working especially with stained glass, and a one-time Consul General to Italy. Armstrong grew up in New York City and received his education at Gilman Country School in Baltimore, Maryland, and at Princeton University from which he received the A.B. in 1916.

Following his graduation Armstrong worked in the business department at The New Republic before entering the army in 1917. Commissioned a second lieutenant in October 1917, Armstrong advanced to first lieutenant and became Military Attache to the Serbian War Mission to the United States in December 1917. In November 1918, he received orders to Belgrade to become Assistant Military Attache to Serbia where in January 1919 he became Acting Military Attache.

Upon his military discharge in June 1919, Armstrong returned to New York to work on the editorial staff of the New York Evening Post, becoming the paper's special correspondent to Eastern Europe in 1921. His time in Serbia kindled in him a lifelong interest in foreign affairs, and in 1921 he became involved with the newly-formed Council on Foreign Relations, created to ensure that the United States' growing role in world affairs be informed and responsible. In 1922 Armstrong accepted a position as managing editor of the Council's magazine, Foreign Affairs, at the request of editor Archibald Cary Coolidge. Upon Coolidge's death in 1928, Armstrong became editor, a position he held until his retirement in 1972. Armstrong also served as the first Executive Director of the Council (1922-1928) and as a Council director from 1928 until 1972.

As editor, Armstrong travelled frequently, visiting with policymakers including King Alexander of Yugoslavia, Raymond Poincaré, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Neville Chamberlain. He was also well acquainted with many prominent Americans, such as Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Henry A. Kissinger. He belonged to many important committees and foundations: member of the President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees; three times delegate to the International Studies Conference (1929, 1933, 1935); trustee and twice president of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation; trustee and once president of the New York Society Library; and trustee of the New York International House.

Armstrong held many prominent positions during the Second World War. From 1942-44, he served on the United States State Department's Advisory Committee on Post-War Foreign Policies, which produced the original plans for the United Nations. In 1944, he became the special assistant to the United States ambassador in London with the personal rank of minister, before serving in 1944 and 1945 as special adviser to Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, working on the charter for the United Nations. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945, he was one of three senior advisers to the United States delegation.

Armstrong wrote prolifically, penning numerous magazine articles–forty-nine for Foreign Affairs alone–and thirteen books (he edited five others). His books include The New Balkans (1926), Where the East Begins (1929), Hitler's Reich: The First Phase (1933), Europe Between Wars? (1934), Can We Be Neutral? (1936) with Allen W. Dulles, "We or They:" Two Worlds in Conflict (1937), When There Is No Peace (1939), Can America Stay Neutral? (1939) with Allen W. Dulles, Chronology of Failure (1940), The Calculated Risk (1947), Tito and Goliath (1951), Those Days (1963), and Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (1971). He edited The Book of New York Verse (1918), Foreign Affairs Bibliography (1933) with William L. Langer, The Foreign Policy of the Powers (1935), The Foreign Affairs Reader (1947), and The Foreign Affairs Fifty-Year Reader (1972).

His activities received much recognition, both at home and abroad. His time in Serbia earned him the Order of the Serbian Red Cross (1918), the Order of St. Sava Fifth Class (1918), and the Chevalier of Order of the White Eagle with Swords (1919). He was awarded the Order of the Crown (Rumania) in 1924 and the Order of the White Lion of Czechoslovakia in 1937. In that year he was made an officer of the Legion of Honor of France and became a commander in 1947. He was appointed a Commander of the British Empire in 1972. He received honorary degrees from Brown (1942), Yale (1957), the University of Basel (1960), Princeton (1961), Columbia (1963), and Harvard (1963).

Armstrong married three times. Helen MacGregor Byrne became his wife in 1918, and they had one daughter, Helen MacGregor (later Mrs. Edwin Gamble) on September 3, 1923. Armstrong and Byrne divorced in 1938. Armstrong married Carman Barnes in 1945, a marriage which ended in a 1951 divorce. In that same year Armstrong married Christa von Tippelskirch. Armstrong retired from Foreign Affairs in 1972, the fiftieth year of its publication, and died after a long illness on April 24, 1973, at the age of 80.

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Robert R. Bowie was a foreign policy expert and legal scholar who served four U.S. administrations as policy planner, counselor, and deputy CIA director, while teaching at Harvard Law School and founding Harvard's Center for International Affairs. Throughout Bowie's wide-ranging career, he sustained interests in antitrust issues, European unity, and global arms control.

Robert Richardson Bowie was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1909. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1931, and was graduated from Harvard Law School in 1934. He practiced law in Baltimore, Maryland between 1934 and 1942 with the firm Bowie and Burke (together with his father Clarence K. Bowie), and was Maryland's Assistant Attorney General from 1941 to 1942. He entered the U.S. Army in 1942.

Bowie's wartime work centered on the renegotiation and termination of war contracts. His Legion of Merit award cites Bowie's contribution to "an agreement under which the War Department was allowed great flexibility in procedure while retaining the benefits of price control."

As World War II ended, Bowie was relocated to occupied Berlin as Special Assistant to General Lucius Clay, the Deputy Military Governor of Germany. Bowie formulated policy for the military government in Germany, serving as executive secretary of the Denazification Policy Board. The Oak Leaf Cluster was added to his Legion of Merit award for services in Germany between 1945 and 1946.

Bowie joined the faculty of the Harvard Law School upon his return to the United States, and taught courses in corporate and antitrust law between 1946 and 1955. In 1949, Bowie served on the Hoover Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, studying federal regulatory agencies including the Federal Reserve Board, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission.

Bowie went on leave from Harvard 1950-1951, returning to Germany to act as General Counsel and Special Adviser to John J. McCloy, then the U.S. High Commissioner of Germany. Bowie helped to draft McCloy's speeches, and himself gave a talk in Hamburg entitled "Economic Bases of a Democratic State." With McCloy, Bowie worked on crafting the agreement between the Allies and West Germany and making the transition from military to civilian government.

During this period, Bowie met Jean Monnet, who was to remain a friend and associate. McCloy and Bowie were among the advocates for the 1950 Schuman Plan (a focal effort of Monnet's), through which West Germany was integrated into the common market of the European Coal and Steel Community along with France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in 1952—a precursor to the European Union.

European unity, and Germany's position in Europe, remained a concern of Bowie's as the Cold War developed. In 1953, Bowie left Harvard once more to become the State Department's third Director of Policy Planning. In 1955 he was also named Assistant Secretary of State. During this time, Bowie worked with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and sat on the National Security Council's planning board, a new body appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Bowie's experience working with Dulles and Eisenhower led to his later participation in recording oral histories about the period, and provided a basis for his authorship with Richard Immerman of Waging Peace: Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. In his reflections and in his writing, he made a case for Eisenhower as a policymaker in his own right.

Returning to Harvard in 1957, Bowie founded the Center for International Affairs (CFIA; now the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs), and was named Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs. With Henry Kissinger, Bowie wrote in 1958 in The Program of the Center for International Affairs: "Foreign affairs in our era pose unprecedented tasks.…Today no region is isolated; none can be ignored; actions and events even in remote places may have immediate worldwide impact…the old order has been shattered." Bowie served as the center's director from its founding until 1972.

In 1966, Bowie served again in Washington as Counselor to Secretary of State Dean Rusk. He returned to Harvard in 1968. He stepped down as director of the CFIA in 1972. During the mid-1970s he was a member of the Trilateral Commission (formed to create ties between industrialized Japan, Europe and North America) and the Overseas Development Council, among other activities.

In 1977, Bowie was appointed Deputy for National Intelligence under Director of the CIA, Admiral Stansfield Turner, and was responsible for regular briefings to President Carter. He left the CIA in 1979, and retired from Harvard in 1980.

During the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie remained active and engaged in the field of foreign policy. He published a monthly column in the Christian Science Monitor in the early 1980s, and chaired a task force of the Committee for Economic Development in 1982. Bowie was a member of the European Security Study (ESECS), a group of independent defense analysts who advocated bolstering NATO's conventional weaponry as an alternative to nuclear stockpiling. He was involved with the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Academy of Diplomacy, the Nuclear History Program (a collaboration between France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Woodrow Wilson Center, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Brookings Institution, among other organizations.

Bowie was the author of Studies in Federalism with Carl J. Friedrich in 1954; Shaping the Future: Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition in 1963 [Radner Lectures at Columbia University]; Suez 1956 in 1974; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy with Richard Immerman in 1998.

Bowie and the former Mary Theodosia Chapman, known as Teddy, married in 1944 and had two children, Robert R. Bowie, Jr. and William C. Bowie.

Robert Bowie died at age 104 in Maryland in November, 2013.

Sources:

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/21/world/r-bowie-104-dies-advised-4-presidents.html

http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/11/professor-robert-r-bowie-dies-at-104/

Weatherhead Center: http://wcfia.harvard.edu/about

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Adlai Ewing Stevenson, governor of Illinois (1949-1953), Democratic candidate for President in 1952 and 1956, and United States ambassador to the United Nations (1961-1965), was born in Los Angeles, California on February 5, 1900, the son of Lewis G. Stevenson and Helen Davis Stevenson. He grew up in Bloomington, Illinois, where his ancestors had been influential in local and national politics since the nineteenth century. Jesse Fell, his maternal great-grandfather, a prominent Republican and an early Lincoln supporter, founded the Daily Pantagraph, a Bloomington newspaper. His paternal grandfather, Adlai E. Stevenson, served as Grover Cleveland's Vice President during his second term, was nominated for the office with William Jennings Bryan in 1900, and ran unsuccessfully for Illinois governor in 1908.

Stevenson attended preparatory school at Choate and went on to Princeton University, where he served as managing editor of the Daily Princetonian and was a member of the Quadrangle Club. He graduated in 1922 and matriculated at Harvard University Law School. However, in July 1924, he returned to Bloomington to work as assistant managing editor of the Daily Pantagraph while the Illinois courts probated his grandfather's will, determining share ownership of the newspaper. While working at the newspaper, Stevenson reentered law school at Northwestern University, and in 1926, graduated and passed the Illinois State Bar examination. He obtained a position at Cutting, Moore and Sidley, an old and conservative Chicago law firm, and became a popular member of Chicago's social scene. In 1928, he married Ellen Borden, a wealthy Chicago socialite. They had three sons: Adlai E. Stevenson III (1930-); Borden Stevenson (1932-); and John Fell Stevenson (1936-). The couple divorced in 1949.

In the early 1930s, Stevenson began his involvement in government service. In July 1933, he became special attorney and assistant to Jerome Frank, general counsel of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in Washington, D. C. In 1934, after the repeal of Prohibition, Stevenson joined the staff of the Federal Alcohol Control Administration (FACA) as chief attorney. A subsidiary of the AAA, the FACA regulated the activities of the alcohol industry. He returned to Chicago and the practice of law in 1935. During this time, Stevenson also became involved in civic activities, particularly as chairman of the Chicago branch of the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies (known often as the White Committee, in honor of its founder, William Allen White). The Stevenson's purchased a seventy-acre tract of land on the Des Plaines River near Libertyville, Illinois where they built a house. Although he spent comparatively little time at Libertyville, Stevenson considered the farm home.

In 1940, Colonel Frank Knox, newly appointed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as Secretary of the Navy, offered Stevenson a position as his special assistant. In this capacity, Stevenson wrote speeches, represented Secretary Knox and the Navy on committees, toured the various theatres of war, and handled many administrative duties. From December 1943 to January 1944, he participated in a special mission to Sicily and Italy for the Foreign Economic Administration to report on the country's economy. After Knox's death in 1944, Stevenson returned to Chicago and attempted to purchase Knox's controlling interest in the Chicago Daily News, but another party outbid his syndicate.

After the war, he accepted an appointment as special assistant to the Secretary of State to work with Assistant Secretary of State Archibald MacLeish on a proposed world organization. Later that year, he went to London as Deputy United States Delegate to the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations Organization, a position he held until February 1946. In 1947, Louis A. Kohn, a Chicago attorney, suggested to Stevenson that he consider running for political office. Stevenson, who had toyed with the idea of entering politics for several years, entered the Illinois gubernatorial race and defeated incumbent Dwight H. Green in a landslide. Principal among his achievements as Illinois governor were reorganizing the state police, cracking down on illegal gambling, and improving the state highways.

Early in 1952, while Stevenson was still governor of Illinois, President Harry S. Truman proposed that he seek the Democratic nomination for president. In a fashion that was to become his trademark, Stevenson at first hesitated, arguing that he was committed to running for a second gubernatorial term. Despite his protestations, the delegates drafted him and he accepted the nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago with a speech that according to contemporaries, "electrified the nation." He chose John J. Sparkman, an Alabama Senator, as his running mate. Stevenson's distinctive speaking style quickly earned him the reputation of an intellectual and endeared him to many Americans, while simultaneously alienating him from others. His Republican opponent, enormously popular World War II hero General Dwight D. Eisenhower, defeated Stevenson. Following his defeat, prior to returning to law practice, Stevenson travelled throughout Asia, the Middle East and Europe, writing about his travels for Look magazine. Although he was not sent as an official emissary of the U.S. government, Stevenson's international reputation gave him entree to many foreign officials.

Back in the United States, Stevenson resumed his desultory practice of law. His national reputation, earned through his presidential campaign, made Stevenson a celebrity attorney who could pick and choose his clients. He accepted numerous speaking engagements and raised funds for the Democratic National Party, then suffering from an $800,000 deficit. Many Democratic leaders considered Stevenson the only natural choice for the presidential nomination in 1956 and his chances for victory seemed greater after Eisenhower's heart attack late in 1955. Although his candidacy was challenged by Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver and New York Governor W. Averell Harriman, Stevenson campaigned more aggressively to secure the nomination, and Kefauver conceded after losing a few key primaries. To Stevenson's dismay, former president Harry S. Truman endorsed Harriman, but the blow was softened by former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt's continued support. Stevenson again won the nomination at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. He permitted the convention delegates to choose Estes Kefauver as his running mate, despite stiff competition from John F. Kennedy. However, Stevenson's best campaign efforts could not overcome the popularity of incumbent Dwight D. Eisenhower. On November 6, 1956, Stevenson was again defeated by Eisenhower, this time by a larger margin.

Despite his two defeats, Stevenson remained enormously popular with the American people. Early in 1957, Stevenson resumed law practice with associates W. Willard Wirtz, William McC. Blair, Jr. and Newton Minow. He also accepted an appointment on the new Democratic Advisory Council, with other prominent Democrats, including Harry S. Truman, David L. Lawrence, and John F. Kennedy. He continued to serve on the board of trustees of the Encyclopedia Brittanica and to act as their legal counsel.

Prior to the 1960 Democratic National Convention, Stevenson announced that he was not seeking the Democratic nomination for president, but would accept another draft. Because he still hoped to be a candidate, Stevenson refused to give the nominating address for relative newcomer John F. Kennedy, a cause for future strained relations between the two politicians. Once Kennedy won the nomination, Stevenson – always an enormously popular public speaker – campaigned actively for him. Due to his two presidential nominations and previous United Nations experience, Stevenson perceived himself as an elder statesman and a natural choice for Secretary of State, an opinion shared by many.

In December 1960, Kennedy offered Stevenson the position of United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Stevenson refused to accept or decline the ambassadorship until Kennedy named the Secretary of State, deepening the rift between them. After Kennedy appointed Dean Rusk as Secretary of State, Stevenson accepted the U.N. ambassadorship. Although he was initially insulted by the offer, once he accepted the appointment, Stevenson devoted himself wholeheartedly to his responsibilities. He served as president of the Security Council and advocated arms control and improved relations with the new nations of Africa. He established residency in an apartment at the Waldorf Astoria, and threw himself into the busy social scene of the city.

In April 1961, Stevenson suffered the greatest humiliation of his career. After an attack against Fidel Castro's communist forces at the Bay of Pigs, Stevenson unwittingly disputed allegations that the attack was financed and supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, claiming instead that the anti-Communist forces were supported by wealthy Cuban emigres. When Stevenson learned that he had been misled by the White House, and even supplied with CIA-forged photographs, he considered resigning the ambassadorship, but was convinced not to do so. During the summer of 1961, Stevenson toured Latin America, trying to convince leaders that Castro was a threat to all of Latin America as well as to the United States. Just a year later, in October 1962, Stevenson demonstrated his seasoned statesmanship during the Cuban Missile Crisis. After the United States discovered offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba, Stevenson confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin in an emergency meeting of the Security Council, challenging him to admit that the offensive weapons had been placed in Cuba and that he was prepared to wait "until Hell freezes over" for Zorin's answer.

In 1964, increasingly disillusioned with his inability to participate in the formulation of policy at the United Nations, Stevenson considered running for the U. S. Senate from New York, and was also regarded as a possible running mate for President Lyndon B. Johnson. In late 1964 and 1965, Stevenson and Secretary General U Thant began to discuss opening negotiations to end the war in Vietnam, although Stevenson publicly backed Johnson's Vietnam policies. Amid much speculation that he was considering resigning his post, Stevenson addressed the Economic and Social Council in Geneva in July 1965. During a stop in London, Stevenson died suddenly on July 14, 1965. Following memorial services in Washington, D.C. and Springfield and Bloomington, Illinois, Stevenson was interred in the family plot in Evergreen Cemetery, Bloomington, Illinois.

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Henry R. Labouisse (1904-1987) was a distinguished American diplomat and international public servant. He served as director of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) from 1954 to 1958 and as executive director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) from 1965 to 1979. He also served as a United States government official working on the formation and implementation of foreign economic policies during World War II and the 1960s. Henry Richardson Labouisse was born in New Orleans, Louisiana on February 11, 1904. He was one of two sons of Henry Richardson Labouisse and Frances Devereaux (Huger) Labouisse. He married Elizabeth Scriven Clark on June 29, 1935 and they had one daughter, Anne (Farnsworth). Elizabeth Labouisse died in 1945. Labouisse remarried on November 19, 1954, to Eve Curie, daughter of the scientists Pierre and Marie Curie. Curie was a renowned author and journalist. They met in 1951, while he was on the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) staff and she was a secretary with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Labouisse earned his B.A. from Princeton University in 1926 and graduated from Harvard University Law School in 1929. He was admitted into the New York State bar the following year. Labouisse was an associate and member of the New York City law firm Taylor, Blanc, Capron and Marsh, and its successor firm Mitchell, Taylor, Capron & Marsh, from 1929 to 1941. When the United States entered the Second World War, Labouisse chose to serve his country by accepting a position in the State Department. He began there in 1941 and rose through a variety of positions over the next several years, most concerned with forming and implementing foreign economic policy. His first position was as assistant chief of the Division of Defense Materials in December 1941. He was promoted to chief of the division in February 1943. Later in 1943, he was made deputy director of the Office of Foreign Economic Coordination, and in January 1944 he was appointed chief of the Eastern Hemisphere Division. In March 1944, he was transferred to the Office of European Affairs, where he was special assistant to the director. Labouisse was appointed chief of the Foreign Economic Administration mission to France in November 1944 and served concurrently as minister for economic affairs at the American Embassy. He became special assistant to Under Secretary of State, William L. Clayton, in November 1945. Through his work with the undersecretary, and his previous work coordinating aid to various European reconstruction points, Labouisse played an important role in the aid efforts that culminated in the Marshall Plan. In July 1946, he returned to his role as special assistant to the director of the Office of European Affairs. Labouisse then served as the principal State Department officer working with the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) during the initial implementation of the Marshall Plan. He traveled to Paris in March 1948 as head of the mission to establish the ECA as the agency to administer United States economic aid to Europe. He returned to Europe in May 1948 as the head of the United States delegation to the Geneva meeting of the Economic Commission for Europe. Labouisse then served as coordinator of foreign aid and assistance in the State Department from June 1948 until October 1949, when he became director of British Commonwealth and Northern European Affairs. He held this post until September 1951. He began arguing for a tougher stance on aid in 1949, one that would force European economies to adjust to market forces. In September 1951, Labouisse was named head of the ECA's mission to France, journeying to Paris as head of the Marshall Plan mission. When the ECA was replaced by the Mutual Security Administration and the Foreign Operations Administration, Labouisse headed the Paris missions of both agencies from 1951 to June 1954. Labouisse left United States government service in 1954 to work for the United Nations. He was appointed director of the United Nations Relief and Work Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) in June 1954 at the request of United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld. The UNRWA was established in December 1949 to carry out relief and works projects in cooperation with local governments. When Labouisse assumed his directorship, the UNRWA was responsible for the care of 887,000 Arab refugees who had fled Palestine in 1948. Labouisse oversaw the improvement of the standard of living in the refugee camps, raised the standards of health, education, and vocational training, and established a grant program that allowed refugees to make a down payment on a farm or shop. He left the UNRWA in 1958. Labouisse was appointed as a consultant to the International Bank of Reconstruction and Development in May 1959. He headed a survey mission to Venezuela in September 1959 to assist in the formulation of a program of economic development. He was recalled from that mission by Hammarskjöld to serve as special advisor to the secretary-general during the Congo crisis in 1960. In December 1960, Labouisse was appointed as the International Bank's special representative for Africa and also headed a mission to Uganda to study economic problems. He returned to United States government service in January 1961, when he was appointed Director of the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) by President John F. Kennedy, which was created to coordinate nonmilitary foreign aid programs. Labouisse had been considered for the post by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in February 1959, but his appointment was rejected by Republican national chairman Meade Alcorn on the grounds that Labouisse had registered as a Democrat several years earlier. In May 1961, President Kennedy began to work with Congress to reorganize the foreign aid programs into a single agency. The ICA was eliminated during the reorganization, and Labouisse was named United States Ambassador to Greece. He held that post from 1962 to 1965. Labouisse was appointed the second Executive Director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) in June 1965, following the death of the first director, Maurice Pate. During his directorship, Labouisse oversaw the emergency relief efforts for several major conflicts and naturals disasters, and fought to alleviate poor conditions in developing countries. UNICEF provided relief to both sides in the Nigerian civil war in 1968 and to Cambodia in 1979, after the country was invaded by Vietnam. Labouisse retired from his position with UNICEF in December 1979, although he continued to work as a consultant on the Cambodia and Thailand operations for most of 1980. After his retirement, Labouisse continued to be active in various organizations, including serving as Chairman of the Board of the American Farm School in Thessaloniki Greece from 1980 to 1985 and as trustee of the school from 1965 to 1985. Labouisse died on March 25, 1987.

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Hamilton Fish Armstrong was born, the youngest of seven children, April 7, 1893, in a house on West 10th Street. His parents, D. Maitland Armstrong (1836-1918) and Helen Neilson (1845-1927) named him for his great uncle, who was Grant's Secretary of State. His father was an artist, working especially with stained glass, and a one-time Consul General to Italy. Armstrong grew up in New York City and received his education at Gilman Country School in Baltimore, Maryland, and at Princeton University from which he received the A.B. in 1916.

Following his graduation Armstrong worked in the business department at The New Republic before entering the army in 1917. Commissioned a second lieutenant in October 1917, Armstrong advanced to first lieutenant and became Military Attache to the Serbian War Mission to the United States in December 1917. In November 1918, he received orders to Belgrade to become Assistant Military Attache to Serbia where in January 1919 he became Acting Military Attache.

Upon his military discharge in June 1919, Armstrong returned to New York to work on the editorial staff of the New York Evening Post, becoming the paper's special correspondent to Eastern Europe in 1921. His time in Serbia kindled in him a lifelong interest in foreign affairs, and in 1921 he became involved with the newly-formed Council on Foreign Relations, created to ensure that the United States' growing role in world affairs be informed and responsible. In 1922 Armstrong accepted a position as managing editor of the Council's magazine, Foreign Affairs, at the request of editor Archibald Cary Coolidge. Upon Coolidge's death in 1928, Armstrong became editor, a position he held until his retirement in 1972. Armstrong also served as the first Executive Director of the Council (1922-1928) and as a Council director from 1928 until 1972.

As editor, Armstrong travelled frequently, visiting with policymakers including King Alexander of Yugoslavia, Raymond Poincaré, Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Neville Chamberlain. He was also well acquainted with many prominent Americans, such as Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Henry A. Kissinger. He belonged to many important committees and foundations: member of the President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees; three times delegate to the International Studies Conference (1929, 1933, 1935); trustee and twice president of the Woodrow Wilson Foundation; trustee and once president of the New York Society Library; and trustee of the New York International House.

Armstrong held many prominent positions during the Second World War. From 1942-44, he served on the United States State Department's Advisory Committee on Post-War Foreign Policies, which produced the original plans for the United Nations. In 1944, he became the special assistant to the United States ambassador in London with the personal rank of minister, before serving in 1944 and 1945 as special adviser to Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, working on the charter for the United Nations. At the San Francisco Conference in 1945, he was one of three senior advisers to the United States delegation.

Armstrong wrote prolifically, penning numerous magazine articles–forty-nine for Foreign Affairs alone–and thirteen books (he edited five others). His books include The New Balkans (1926), Where the East Begins (1929), Hitler's Reich: The First Phase (1933), Europe Between Wars? (1934), Can We Be Neutral? (1936) with Allen W. Dulles, "We or They:" Two Worlds in Conflict (1937), When There Is No Peace (1939), Can America Stay Neutral? (1939) with Allen W. Dulles, Chronology of Failure (1940), The Calculated Risk (1947), Tito and Goliath (1951), Those Days (1963), and Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (1971). He edited The Book of New York Verse (1918), Foreign Affairs Bibliography (1933) with William L. Langer, The Foreign Policy of the Powers (1935), The Foreign Affairs Reader (1947), and The Foreign Affairs Fifty-Year Reader (1972).

His activities received much recognition, both at home and abroad. His time in Serbia earned him the Order of the Serbian Red Cross (1918), the Order of St. Sava Fifth Class (1918), and the Chevalier of Order of the White Eagle with Swords (1919). He was awarded the Order of the Crown (Rumania) in 1924 and the Order of the White Lion of Czechoslovakia in 1937. In that year he was made an officer of the Legion of Honor of France and became a commander in 1947. He was appointed a Commander of the British Empire in 1972. He received honorary degrees from Brown (1942), Yale (1957), the University of Basel (1960), Princeton (1961), Columbia (1963), and Harvard (1963).

Armstrong married three times. Helen MacGregor Byrne became his wife in 1918, and they had one daughter, Helen MacGregor (later Mrs. Edwin Gamble) on September 3, 1923. Armstrong and Byrne divorced in 1938. Armstrong married Carman Barnes in 1945, a marriage which ended in a 1951 divorce. In that same year Armstrong married Christa von Tippelskirch. Armstrong retired from Foreign Affairs in 1972, the fiftieth year of its publication, and died after a long illness on April 24, 1973, at the age of 80.

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Robert R. Bowie was a foreign policy expert and legal scholar who served four U.S. administrations as policy planner, counselor, and deputy CIA director, while teaching at Harvard Law School and founding Harvard's Center for International Affairs. Throughout Bowie's wide-ranging career, he sustained interests in antitrust issues, European unity, and global arms control.

Robert Richardson Bowie was born in Baltimore, Maryland in 1909. He attended Princeton University, graduating in 1931, and was graduated from Harvard Law School in 1934. He practiced law in Baltimore, Maryland between 1934 and 1942 with the firm Bowie and Burke (together with his father Clarence K. Bowie), and was Maryland's Assistant Attorney General from 1941 to 1942. He entered the U.S. Army in 1942.

Bowie's wartime work centered on the renegotiation and termination of war contracts. His Legion of Merit award cites Bowie's contribution to "an agreement under which the War Department was allowed great flexibility in procedure while retaining the benefits of price control."

As World War II ended, Bowie was relocated to occupied Berlin as Special Assistant to General Lucius Clay, the Deputy Military Governor of Germany. Bowie formulated policy for the military government in Germany, serving as executive secretary of the Denazification Policy Board. The Oak Leaf Cluster was added to his Legion of Merit award for services in Germany between 1945 and 1946.

Bowie joined the faculty of the Harvard Law School upon his return to the United States, and taught courses in corporate and antitrust law between 1946 and 1955. In 1949, Bowie served on the Hoover Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government, studying federal regulatory agencies including the Federal Reserve Board, the Securities and Exchange Commission, and the Federal Trade Commission.

Bowie went on leave from Harvard 1950-1951, returning to Germany to act as General Counsel and Special Adviser to John J. McCloy, then the U.S. High Commissioner of Germany. Bowie helped to draft McCloy's speeches, and himself gave a talk in Hamburg entitled "Economic Bases of a Democratic State." With McCloy, Bowie worked on crafting the agreement between the Allies and West Germany and making the transition from military to civilian government.

During this period, Bowie met Jean Monnet, who was to remain a friend and associate. McCloy and Bowie were among the advocates for the 1950 Schuman Plan (a focal effort of Monnet's), through which West Germany was integrated into the common market of the European Coal and Steel Community along with France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg in 1952—a precursor to the European Union.

European unity, and Germany's position in Europe, remained a concern of Bowie's as the Cold War developed. In 1953, Bowie left Harvard once more to become the State Department's third Director of Policy Planning. In 1955 he was also named Assistant Secretary of State. During this time, Bowie worked with Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and sat on the National Security Council's planning board, a new body appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Bowie's experience working with Dulles and Eisenhower led to his later participation in recording oral histories about the period, and provided a basis for his authorship with Richard Immerman of Waging Peace: Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. In his reflections and in his writing, he made a case for Eisenhower as a policymaker in his own right.

Returning to Harvard in 1957, Bowie founded the Center for International Affairs (CFIA; now the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs), and was named Clarence Dillon Professor of International Affairs. With Henry Kissinger, Bowie wrote in 1958 in The Program of the Center for International Affairs: "Foreign affairs in our era pose unprecedented tasks.…Today no region is isolated; none can be ignored; actions and events even in remote places may have immediate worldwide impact…the old order has been shattered." Bowie served as the center's director from its founding until 1972.

In 1966, Bowie served again in Washington as Counselor to Secretary of State Dean Rusk. He returned to Harvard in 1968. He stepped down as director of the CFIA in 1972. During the mid-1970s he was a member of the Trilateral Commission (formed to create ties between industrialized Japan, Europe and North America) and the Overseas Development Council, among other activities.

In 1977, Bowie was appointed Deputy for National Intelligence under Director of the CIA, Admiral Stansfield Turner, and was responsible for regular briefings to President Carter. He left the CIA in 1979, and retired from Harvard in 1980.

During the 1980s and 1990s, Bowie remained active and engaged in the field of foreign policy. He published a monthly column in the Christian Science Monitor in the early 1980s, and chaired a task force of the Committee for Economic Development in 1982. Bowie was a member of the European Security Study (ESECS), a group of independent defense analysts who advocated bolstering NATO's conventional weaponry as an alternative to nuclear stockpiling. He was involved with the Council on Foreign Relations, the American Academy of Diplomacy, the Nuclear History Program (a collaboration between France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States), the Woodrow Wilson Center, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Brookings Institution, among other organizations.

Bowie was the author of Studies in Federalism with Carl J. Friedrich in 1954; Shaping the Future: Foreign Policy in an Age of Transition in 1963 [Radner Lectures at Columbia University]; Suez 1956 in 1974; Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy with Richard Immerman in 1998.

Bowie and the former Mary Theodosia Chapman, known as Teddy, married in 1944 and had two children, Robert R. Bowie, Jr. and William C. Bowie.

Robert Bowie died at age 104 in Maryland in November, 2013.

Sources:

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/21/world/r-bowie-104-dies-advised-4-presidents.html

http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/11/professor-robert-r-bowie-dies-at-104/

Weatherhead Center: http://wcfia.harvard.edu/about

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Recording of roundtable discussion for broadcast on NPR radio.

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Paul A. Volcker (1927-) is an economist who has served in several prominent positions in the federal government. Born in Cape May, NJ, Volcker attended Princeton University for his undergraduate education, graduating summa cum laude in 1949. He went on to earn a master's degree in political economy and government from Harvard University in 1951, then studied at the London School of Economics in 1951-1952 under the Rotary Foundation's Ambassadorial Scholarships program.

Volcker began his career in government service in 1952 as an economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Five years later, in 1957, he left the position to join the private sector, taking a job at Chase Manhattan Bank. Volcker first worked for the Treasury Department in 1962 as the director of the Office of Financial Analysis, and the following year became the deputy undersecretary for monetary affairs. He resumed work in the private sector once more in 1965, returning to Chase Manhattan Bank as vice president and director of planning.

Volcker served as undersecretary of the Treasury for international monetary affairs from 1969-1974. In this capacity, Volcker was influential in the Nixon administration's economic policy changes of August 1971. These policy changes, particularly the suspension of the U.S. dollar's convertibility to gold and a short-term freeze on wages and prices, temporarily halted inflation and increased the rates of employment and productivity in the United States. After leaving the Treasury Department, Volcker returned to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York from 1975-1979 to serve as its president.

In August 1979, Jimmy Carter appointed Volcker as chairman of the Board of Governors for the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve under Volcker's leadership is credited with ending the inflation of the 1970s through aggressive control of the money supply, leading to historically high interest rates. By the end his term, the inflation process had ended, giving rise to years of stable growth. As chairman, Volcker also put more focus on the economic conditions in developing countries and prohibiting certain activities of commercial banks.

After leaving the Board of Governors in 1987, Volcker served as chair of the National Commission on Public Service. The following year, he became chairman of Wolfensohn and Co., a boutique international investment banking firm. Volcker was chairman of the Board of Trustees of the International Accounting Standards from 2000-2005.

In 1996, Volcker was asked by representatives of the Swiss and Jewish communities to head an effort to trace accounts of victims of Nazi persecution opened in Swiss banks before World War II, leading to substantial compensation for survivors and their progeny. In 2004, the Secretary General of the United Nations called upon Volcker to undertake an investigation of allegations of substantial corruption by participants in the U.N.'s Oil for Food program and within the U.N. itself. That successful investigation led to a further request by the president of the World Bank to lead a review of the Bank's anti-corruption program, prompting substantial reforms in Bank procedures.

Volcker headed President Obama's Economic Recovery Advisory Board from 2009 to 2011. In this role, he crafted the "Volcker Rule," a provision to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010. The provision restricts banking institutions in the United States from conducting certain kinds of speculative investment activities.

Volcker was a senior fellow in the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs at Princeton University for the 1974-1975 academic year. He is the coauthor of several books. For many years he chaired the Trilateral Commission and the "Group of 30," consisting of leading central bankers, other financial officials, and financial scholars.

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Lewis Thomas, M.D., noted physician, scientist, and author, was born on November 25, 1913, to Joseph S. and Grace Emma (Peck) Thomas in Flushing, New York, where his father, a surgeon, had a medical practice. After four very successful years in high school, he entered Princeton University at the age of fifteen. Thomas's first three years at Princeton, however, were desultory at best, until his senior year when a biology course sparked his interest. He received a B.S. from Princeton in 1933 and entered Harvard Medical School, graduating Cum Laude in 1937. The next two years were spent as an intern at Boston City Hospital (1937-1939), and another two as a resident in neurology at Columbia's Neurological Institute (1939-1941).

He began his investigative work as a Tilney Memorial Fellow at Thorndike Lab, Boston City Hospital (1941-1942), and in 1942 joined the Naval Medical Research Unit at Rockefeller Institute, studying infectious diseases of importance to the armed forces for the next four years. Also at this time, on January 1, 1941, he married Beryl Dawson. During these years Dr. Thomas began publishing some important scientific papers, the earliest material in this collection.

In 1946, Dr. Thomas moved to Johns Hopkins University as an assistant professor of pediatrics, where he initiated a series of investigations on acute rheumatic fever. He continued this work as an associate professor at Tulane University for the next two years (1948-1950). In 1948 he published a paper on the Schwartzmann Phenomenon, a subject of significant scientific importance. He became a full professor of medicine at Tulane in 1950, and the same year moved again for four years (1950-1954) to the University of Minnesota to be a professor of pediatrics and medicine and director of pediatric research laboratories at Heart Hospital.

Dr. Thomas went to New York University in 1954 where he was professor of pathology until 1969. Pathology became his main interest, and he was publishing papers of this nature during those years on such subjects as cortisone and infection, serum sickness, and drug allergy, as well as many papers on endotoxin.

In 1973, Lewis Thomas became president of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and chancellor in 1980. During these years he guided the Center and served on many of its committees, such as the Subcommittee on Informed Consent, the Standing Committee of the Medical Board, the Society of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, and the Sloan-Kettering Institute Senate and its Board of Scientific Consultants. He also received copies of reports, minutes, and correspondence related to other committees in which he was not directly involved, thereby allowing him to oversee all aspects of the Center. The years of his presidency and chancellorship saw many grants bestowed on the Center by the American Cancer Society and the Rockefeller family, to name a few; many grants given by MSKCC to other research centers such as the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; and major corporate reorganizations and additions, such as the creation of a joint library facility for Rockefeller University, Cornell University Medical College, and MSKCC, a joint genetics department with Cornell University Medical College at Sloan-Kettering Institute, and the dedication of a new hospital in November 1973. Dr. Thomas served on various other joint committees to further these ends.

When he left MSKCC in 1983 for the State University of New York at Stony Brook to be a professor, he was no less active. He was on various boards of corporations and non-profit organizations, some spanning the years at MSKCC and beyond: Biocyte Corporation (board member, 1984-1990), the Aaron Diamond Foundation (1985-1990), Monell Chemical Senses Center (1979-1991), and the National Research Council (1986-1988), among others. Dr. Thomas also served as "communicator" to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, which involved submitting scientific papers by others to a review committee for possible publication in the Proceedings.

Lewis Thomas is probably best known to the public from his column in The New England Journal of Medicine, "Notes of a Biology Watcher," which appeared from 1971 to 1980, and from the resulting book-length compilations of these essays, The Lives of a Cell (1974) and The Medusa and the Snail (1979). Dr. Thomas has published a number of other books, such as The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher (1983), Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony (1983), Et Cetera, Et Cetera: Notes of a Word Watcher (1990), and The Fragile Species (1992), as well as a plethora of articles and essays. These works, expressed in an informal friendly tone, earned him the National Book Award for The Lives of a Cell, the American Book Award for The Medusa and the Snail (1981), and many other literary awards, as well as recognition for being one of the best modern scientific essayists who writes non-technically about the meaning of biology and, by extension, the meaning of life.

As the collection reflects (from 1966 to 1990), Dr. Thomas was much in demand as a speaker and lecturer in this country and abroad. He presented papers and gave speeches and commencement addresses, many of which found their way into widely-known medical journals and popular magazines. Among the many honors Dr. Thomas has received are the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters Award (May 1980) and the coveted Woodrow Wilson Award (February 1981). In April of 1986 Princeton University honored him by naming its new molecular biology building the "Lewis Thomas Laboratory." In addition, Dr. Thomas has received 20 honorary degrees in science, law, letters, and music. A few of them are from Yale University, the University of Rochester, Princeton University, Johns Hopkins University, the Medical College of Ohio, and Reed College.

Nov. 25, 1913 Born in Flushing, New York 1933 B.S., Princeton University 1937 M.D., Harvard University 1937-1939 Intern, Boston City Hospital 1939-1941 Resident in neurology, Neurological Institute, NYC 1941-1942 Tilney Memorial Fellow at Thorndike Lab, Boston City Hospital 1942-1946 Visiting investigator, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research 1946-1948 Assistant professor of pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University 1948-1950 Associate professor, Tulane University, New Orleans 1948-1950 Director of Division of Infectious Disease, Tulane 1950 Professor of medicine, Tulane 1950-1954 Professor of pediatrics and medicine and director of pediatric research laboratories at Heart Hospital, University of Minnesota 1954-1969 Professor of pathology, New York University 1954-1958 Head of department, New York University 1959-1966 Director of University Hospital 1966-1969 Dean of School of Medicine, New York University 1969-1973 Professor of pathology and head of department, Yale University 1971-1973 Dean, Yale University School of Medicine 1973-1980 President, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, NYC 1974 Published The Lives of a Cell 1979 Published The Medusa and the Snail 1980-1983 Chancellor, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, NYC 1983 President Emeritus, MSKCC 1983 University professor, State University of New York, Stony Brook 1983 Published The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher 1983 Published Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony 1988 Adjunct professor of medicine, NYU School of Medicine 1988 Scholar-in-Residence, Cornell University Medical College 1988 President, New York Academy of Science (council, 1966-1972) 1990 Published Et Cetera, Et Cetera: Notes of a Word Watcher 1992 Published The Fragile Species

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Lewis Thomas, M.D., noted physician, scientist, and author, was born on November 25, 1913, to Joseph S. and Grace Emma (Peck) Thomas in Flushing, New York, where his father, a surgeon, had a medical practice. After four very successful years in high school, he entered Princeton University at the age of fifteen. Thomas's first three years at Princeton, however, were desultory at best, until his senior year when a biology course sparked his interest. He received a B.S. from Princeton in 1933 and entered Harvard Medical School, graduating Cum Laude in 1937. The next two years were spent as an intern at Boston City Hospital (1937-1939), and another two as a resident in neurology at Columbia's Neurological Institute (1939-1941).

He began his investigative work as a Tilney Memorial Fellow at Thorndike Lab, Boston City Hospital (1941-1942), and in 1942 joined the Naval Medical Research Unit at Rockefeller Institute, studying infectious diseases of importance to the armed forces for the next four years. Also at this time, on January 1, 1941, he married Beryl Dawson. During these years Dr. Thomas began publishing some important scientific papers, the earliest material in this collection.

In 1946, Dr. Thomas moved to Johns Hopkins University as an assistant professor of pediatrics, where he initiated a series of investigations on acute rheumatic fever. He continued this work as an associate professor at Tulane University for the next two years (1948-1950). In 1948 he published a paper on the Schwartzmann Phenomenon, a subject of significant scientific importance. He became a full professor of medicine at Tulane in 1950, and the same year moved again for four years (1950-1954) to the University of Minnesota to be a professor of pediatrics and medicine and director of pediatric research laboratories at Heart Hospital.

Dr. Thomas went to New York University in 1954 where he was professor of pathology until 1969. Pathology became his main interest, and he was publishing papers of this nature during those years on such subjects as cortisone and infection, serum sickness, and drug allergy, as well as many papers on endotoxin.

In 1973, Lewis Thomas became president of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York City and chancellor in 1980. During these years he guided the Center and served on many of its committees, such as the Subcommittee on Informed Consent, the Standing Committee of the Medical Board, the Society of Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, and the Sloan-Kettering Institute Senate and its Board of Scientific Consultants. He also received copies of reports, minutes, and correspondence related to other committees in which he was not directly involved, thereby allowing him to oversee all aspects of the Center. The years of his presidency and chancellorship saw many grants bestowed on the Center by the American Cancer Society and the Rockefeller family, to name a few; many grants given by MSKCC to other research centers such as the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; and major corporate reorganizations and additions, such as the creation of a joint library facility for Rockefeller University, Cornell University Medical College, and MSKCC, a joint genetics department with Cornell University Medical College at Sloan-Kettering Institute, and the dedication of a new hospital in November 1973. Dr. Thomas served on various other joint committees to further these ends.

When he left MSKCC in 1983 for the State University of New York at Stony Brook to be a professor, he was no less active. He was on various boards of corporations and non-profit organizations, some spanning the years at MSKCC and beyond: Biocyte Corporation (board member, 1984-1990), the Aaron Diamond Foundation (1985-1990), Monell Chemical Senses Center (1979-1991), and the National Research Council (1986-1988), among others. Dr. Thomas also served as "communicator" to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, which involved submitting scientific papers by others to a review committee for possible publication in the Proceedings.

Lewis Thomas is probably best known to the public from his column in The New England Journal of Medicine, "Notes of a Biology Watcher," which appeared from 1971 to 1980, and from the resulting book-length compilations of these essays, The Lives of a Cell (1974) and The Medusa and the Snail (1979). Dr. Thomas has published a number of other books, such as The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher (1983), Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony (1983), Et Cetera, Et Cetera: Notes of a Word Watcher (1990), and The Fragile Species (1992), as well as a plethora of articles and essays. These works, expressed in an informal friendly tone, earned him the National Book Award for The Lives of a Cell, the American Book Award for The Medusa and the Snail (1981), and many other literary awards, as well as recognition for being one of the best modern scientific essayists who writes non-technically about the meaning of biology and, by extension, the meaning of life.

As the collection reflects (from 1966 to 1990), Dr. Thomas was much in demand as a speaker and lecturer in this country and abroad. He presented papers and gave speeches and commencement addresses, many of which found their way into widely-known medical journals and popular magazines. Among the many honors Dr. Thomas has received are the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters Award (May 1980) and the coveted Woodrow Wilson Award (February 1981). In April of 1986 Princeton University honored him by naming its new molecular biology building the "Lewis Thomas Laboratory." In addition, Dr. Thomas has received 20 honorary degrees in science, law, letters, and music. A few of them are from Yale University, the University of Rochester, Princeton University, Johns Hopkins University, the Medical College of Ohio, and Reed College.

Nov. 25, 1913 Born in Flushing, New York 1933 B.S., Princeton University 1937 M.D., Harvard University 1937-1939 Intern, Boston City Hospital 1939-1941 Resident in neurology, Neurological Institute, NYC 1941-1942 Tilney Memorial Fellow at Thorndike Lab, Boston City Hospital 1942-1946 Visiting investigator, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research 1946-1948 Assistant professor of pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University 1948-1950 Associate professor, Tulane University, New Orleans 1948-1950 Director of Division of Infectious Disease, Tulane 1950 Professor of medicine, Tulane 1950-1954 Professor of pediatrics and medicine and director of pediatric research laboratories at Heart Hospital, University of Minnesota 1954-1969 Professor of pathology, New York University 1954-1958 Head of department, New York University 1959-1966 Director of University Hospital 1966-1969 Dean of School of Medicine, New York University 1969-1973 Professor of pathology and head of department, Yale University 1971-1973 Dean, Yale University School of Medicine 1973-1980 President, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, NYC 1974 Published The Lives of a Cell 1979 Published The Medusa and the Snail 1980-1983 Chancellor, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, NYC 1983 President Emeritus, MSKCC 1983 University professor, State University of New York, Stony Brook 1983 Published The Youngest Science: Notes of a Medicine Watcher 1983 Published Late Night Thoughts on Listening to Mahler's Ninth Symphony 1988 Adjunct professor of medicine, NYU School of Medicine 1988 Scholar-in-Residence, Cornell University Medical College 1988 President, New York Academy of Science (council, 1966-1972) 1990 Published Et Cetera, Et Cetera: Notes of a Word Watcher 1992 Published The Fragile Species

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William Putnam Bundy was born September 24, 1917 in Washington, D.C. to Harvey H. and Katherine (Putnam) Bundy. He was educated at Groton School (1935), Yale College (1939), Harvard Graduate School (1940) and Harvard Law School (1947). In 1943, he married Mary Acheson, daughter of Dean Acheson, secretary of state under President Harry Truman. Later, they had three children, two sons, Michael, and Christopher, and a daughter, Carol. He served in the United State's Army from 1941 to 1946. During World War II, he commanded an Army Signal Corps unit working with the British at Bletchley Park on the ULTRA operation breaking high-level German Engima ciphers. He was awarded the Legion of Merit and was made a member of the Order of the British Empire. After finishing law school in 1947, he worked for four years with the Washington, D.C. firm of Covington and Burling. In 1951, he joined the Central Intelligence Agency, Office of National Estimates, working as the chief of staff and as a liaison to the National Security Council staff. In 1960, Bundy served as staff director of the President's Commission on National Goals.

Bundy served under President Kennedy and Johnson as a political appointee from 1961-1969. In 1961, he was appointed as Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs (ISA), then from 1963 to 1964 as Assistant Secretary of Defense, ISA. From 1964-1969, he served under the Department of State as the Assistant Secretary for East Asian and Pacific Affairs. During his time as Assistant Secretary, Bundy participated in deliberations on such matters as the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis. Later, he became a central figure in shaping Vietnam policy. Bundy left government in May 1969 to teach at the Center for International Studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. From 1970 to 1972, he served as a part-time columnist for Newsweek, rotating with George Ball and Zbigniew Brzezinski in the international edition and briefly in the domestic edition.

He edited Foreign Affairs from 1972 to 1984, contributing several articles of his own. Later he served as a Visiting Professor at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton University from 1985 to 1987. He was a Trustee of the American Assembly from 1964 to 1984 and served on the Board of Directors of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1964 to 1972. After 1987, he devoted his time to writing a critical history of American foreign policy in the Nixon-Kissinger Era including the later years of Vietnam. In 1998, he published A Tangled Web: the Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency. Bundy died from heart trouble on October 6, 2000 at age 83.

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W. Michael Blumenthal is a businessperson and economic adviser who served as Secretary of the Treasury in the Carter Administration. He was born in Germany in 1926, and with his family escaped Germany for Shanghai in 1939. He emigrated to the United States in 1947 and received his B.Sc. from UC Berkeley in 1951. He received an M.P.A. in public affairs (1953) and an M.A. and Ph.D. in economics (1956) from Princeton University and went into business.

Starting in 1961, Blumenthal served as deputy assistant secretary for economic affairs, and later as the president's deputy special representative for trade negotiations in both the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. He returned to the business world in 1967 to become president of Bendix Corporation.

In 1977 Blumenthal was named Secretary of the Treasury under Jimmy Carter. He resigned from the position in 1979, returning to the private sector. He was chairman and CEO of Unisys at his retirement in 1990.

Blumenthal is the author of The Invisible Wall: Germans and Jews: A Personal Exploration (1998) and From Exile to Washington: A Memoir of Leadership in the Twentieth Century (2013).

Blumenthal was the Founding Director of the Jewish Museum Berlin in 1997, and served there until 2014.

Source: New Start New Jersey Advisory Board biographical statement.

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W. Michael Blumenthal is a businessperson and economic adviser who served as Secretary of the Treasury in the Carter Administration. He was born in Germany in 1926, and with his family escaped Germany for Shanghai in 1939. He emigrated to the United States in 1947 and received his B.Sc. from UC Berkeley in 1951. He received an M.P.A. in public affairs (1953) and an M.A. and Ph.D. in economics (1956) from Princeton University and went into business.

Starting in 1961, Blumenthal served as deputy assistant secretary for economic affairs, and later as the president's deputy special representative for trade negotiations in both the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. He returned to the business world in 1967 to become president of Bendix Corporation.

In 1977 Blumenthal was named Secretary of the Treasury under Jimmy Carter. He resigned from the position in 1979, returning to the private sector. He was chairman and CEO of Unisys at his retirement in 1990.

Blumenthal is the author of The Invisible Wall: Germans and Jews: A Personal Exploration (1998) and From Exile to Washington: A Memoir of Leadership in the Twentieth Century (2013).

Blumenthal was the Founding Director of the Jewish Museum Berlin in 1997, and served there until 2014.

Source: New Start New Jersey Advisory Board biographical statement.

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Recorded over previous program. This program ends during question and answer session at 34:16 and audio switches back to unidentified speaker ("Manfred"). Recording ends at question and answer session of older recording.

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